Tuesday, July 22, 2008

Free will by P. Read Montague: ¿Qué es el libre albedrio (libertad)?

Current Biology, Vol 18, R584-R585, 22 July 2008

Free will
P. Read Montague

Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA



What is free will?
Free will is the idea that we make choices and have thoughts independent of anything remotely resembling a physical process. Free will is the close cousin to the idea of the soul — the concept that ‘you’, your thoughts and feelings, derive from an entity that is separate and distinct from the physical mechanisms that make up your body. From this perspective, your choices are not caused by physical events, but instead emerge wholly formed from somewhere indescribable and outside the purview of physical descriptions. This implies that free will cannot have evolved by natural selection, as that would place it directly in a stream of causally connected physical events. Consequently, the idea of free will is not even in principle within reach of scientific description.
If free will is not a useful scientific concept, then how can we address the biological substrates of choice?
Instead of getting hung up on the semantics of defining free will, modern biological approaches to the problem of choice have directed their efforts toward understanding how nervous systems: (1) frame the finite choices available; (2) value the choices; and (3) choose an option based on those valuations. This is a very economic rendering of the problem, but the problem of choice for biologically evolved creatures is exactly an economic problem. Viewed this way, it's easy to see why ‘free’ choice is an unconstructive way to conceptualize the way humans choose. Real-world creatures operate on finite energetic resources and so they are never free to choose from an infinite reserve of possibilities. Moreover, even among the finite choices available, some choices are much better than others. Imagine the creature that, upon detecting a fierce predator, has a nervous system that chooses to run straight at the predator. This kind of mechanism doesn't last very long in the real world, and therefore we don't see good examples of such ‘non-escape’ behavior in creatures today.
Much of the best biological work in decision-making has been carried out in bacteria and insects because the genetics of these organisms is better understood and they provide the most physically accessible nervous systems. With the advent of modern imaging and neurophysiological techniques, however, decision-making by human and non-human primates has become a bustling area in the early stages of development. This work has focused largely on the important problem of valuation — the way that nervous systems assign differential value to available behavioral options. And it's this valuation step that appears to provide human decision-makers with an especially developed capacity — the ability to use abstract ideas to control our behavior. It is this capacity that resembles, but is not equivalent to, the older ideas about will.
Is there any mechanism or capacity in the human nervous system that resembles will?
It's well known that abstract ideas can commandeer a person's behavior and often in odd ways. For example, humans routinely go on hunger strikes based on political ideas and can inhibit their drive to take in food — even to the point of death. The capacity for abstractions to veto survival instincts can be seemingly arbitrary and the abstraction does even not have to possess any basis in reality. One need only remember the 1997 mass suicide of the Heaven's Gate cult based on the idea that there was a spaceship hiding in the tail of the comet Hale-Bopp waiting to take believers ‘to the next level’.
The ability to make choices inconsistent with survival is a potent ability to choose and one that brings potential physical danger to its possessor.
Does the capacity to make choices inconsistent with survival demonstrate that humans possess something like free choice?
The dramatic examples above appear on the surface to resemble the old philosophical idea of free will — choosing a course of action against all biological imperatives. As we illustrated above, humans do not possess the traditional notion of free choice; however, they do possess a capacity for flexible choice. One way to understand this flexibility is by hypothesizing that these ‘pathologies’ of choice represent extremes in the normal human capacity for cognitive innovation — the ability to form and pursue novel ideas not directly related to immediate survival needs.
As biological creatures, we are intimately tied to the demands for our survival — breathing, eating, procreating, avoiding trouble, and so on. Cognitive innovation requires (at least) a kind of timeout from these demands, as well as elevation of the value assigned to the innovation, that is, the new idea or behavior. To pursue some idea not directly related to survival our brains would need mechanisms to turn down the importance of survival needs and turn up the value of the idea. This hypothesis makes an important point. Our choices never were free, but they remain rather flexible and they do so by allowing abstractions to be able to commandeer our attention and behavior — at least temporarily. This capacity provides one direct conduit from the culture that we build and further allows this culture to couple rather tightly to our behavior. This is a biological process that we do not understand, but it exposes all sorts of important ramifications for our treasured social institutions — schools, laws, government, and so on.
Are there practical ways in which valuation mechanisms change a human's capacity to choose?
Yes. Consider drug addiction (choose any drug). Modern biological approaches to drug addiction have attacked the problem at numerous levels of description. We now understand a great deal about the neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and molecular interactions that are influenced by drugs of abuse. Over the last 15 years, however, computational descriptions of reward processing systems have added another perspective to this literature. These models have identified reward-prediction error signals encoded in fluctuations in dopaminergic neuron activity in the midbrain. Midbrain dopamine systems are hijacked or perturbed by every drug of abuse and these systems are intimately tied to the way that the mammalian nervous system values choices available to it.
Such models portray addiction as valuation disease, where the nervous system over-values cues associated with drugs or drug-taking. However, there is a point here: the addicted nervous system is choosing highly valued options, a rational maneuver; but the valuation on the drug-associated cues is pathologically high. So loosely, one might see this as a diminished will — a lowered capacity to choose behavioral options not leading to drugs, but resulting from bad valuations of cues associated with drugs. The mechanisms that make the choice conditioned on the valuation appear intact. So these approaches to addiction have given us a new way to conceptualize what might have been lazily labeled a ‘lack of will’ on the part of the addict. These computational models are growing in sophistication each year and are now being used to direct physiology experiments, neuroimaging experiments, and the assessment of various therapies in this domain.
There are other conditions that can also dramatically affect a person's capacity to carry out normal value-dependent choice. Strokes, traumatic brain injury, coma, and various metabolic conditions can all influence one's capacity to value behavioral acts and mental states, and so will compromise the ability to navigate a ‘normal’ life. Often family members or even the courts must step in and decide whether to turn off life support machinery, yet without any good understanding of what functions might need to recover for this ‘normal life’ to ensue nor how they might recover nor how to make measurements related to these unidentified functions. So we have a lot to learn in this domain, but this is exactly the arena where the best science needs to inform the decision-makers. I say inform here because even once the mechanistic answers are clearer, we will still have to choose what to do with them.

How can I find out more?

[Dennett, 2003] Dennett, D. (2003). Freedom Evolves (Penguin Group: Viking Press).

[Gigerenzer, 2007] Gigerenzer, G. (2007). Gut Feelings (Penguin Group: Viking Press).

[Redish, 2004] Redish, A.D. (2004). Addiction as a computational process gone awry. Science 306, 1944-1947.

[Montague et al., 2004] Montague, P.R., Hyman, S., and Cohen, J.D. (2004). Computational roles for dopamine in behavioural control. Nature 431, 760-767.

[Dayan et al., 2006] Dayan, P., Niv, Y., Seymour, B., and Daw, N. (2006). The misbehavior of value and the discipline of the will. Neural Networks 19, 1153-1160.

[Chiu et al., 2008] Chiu, P.H., Lohrenz, T.M., and Montague, P.R. (2008). Smokers' brains compute, but ignore, a fictive error signal in a sequential investment task. Nat. Neurosci. 11, 514-520.

32 comments:

Anonymous said...

Hi !.
You re, I guess , probably very interested to know how one can collect a huge starting capital .
There is no initial capital needed You may begin to receive yields with as small sum of money as 20-100 dollars.

AimTrust is what you need
The company incorporates an offshore structure with advanced asset management technologies in production and delivery of pipes for oil and gas.

Its head office is in Panama with structures around the world.
Do you want to become a happy investor?
That`s your choice That`s what you really need!

I feel good, I began to get real money with the help of this company,
and I invite you to do the same. If it gets down to choose a proper partner who uses your savings in a right way - that`s AimTrust!.
I earn US$2,000 per day, and my first investment was 500 dollars only!
It`s easy to start , just click this link http://juvoninocy.dreamstation.com/ewybysi.html
and lucky you`re! Let`s take our chance together to feel the smell of real money

Anonymous said...

[url=http://pittsburghmom.com/members/Pokimon2010/default.aspx/][img]http://i048.radikal.ru/0910/57/9a759e833d4a.jpg[/img][/url]

10600 movies of rare DVD property

We hold thousands of the hottest movies you've been waiting to ready for! And they're stylish available in Hi-Def!
These movies are playable on most viewing devices including iPod, PDA (HandHelds), PC, DVD & DivX players.
There are categorically no limits. Download as much as you penury with incredibly high speeds. No additional software is required!
Simply click on a link, download a movie and guard it on your favorite player.

[size=4][url=http://pittsburghmom.com/members/Pokimon2010/default.aspx]Sign Up[/url] today and forget about buying or renting DVDs offline. [/size]


[url=http://movies.aoaoaxxx.ru/][img]http://s43.radikal.ru/i102/0910/37/6c734f3ca5fb.jpg[/img][/url]





























[url=http://pittsburghmom.com/members/Pokimon2010/default.aspx][b]TOP 40 BEST Movies:[/b][/url]
Into the Wild
Sydney aka Hard Eight
Con Air
Red Heat
Double Dagger
Stuart Little
Derailed
In Her Shoes
Kid for Two Farthings, A
Alligator II: The Mutation
Elvis Took a Bullet
American High School
Genova
Bread and Roses
Celestine Prophecy, The
Octagon, The
Perfect Murder, A
Conversation, The
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest
Star Trek: Nemesis
Erin Brockovich
Murder Party
Fantastic Planet, The
Police Academy 2: Their First Assignment
Gangs of New York
Last Emperor, The
Brideshead Revisited
Seventh Moon
Double Team
Once Upon a Time in Mexico


[url=http://freewebhostingtipsonline.com/members/nasihzhemchuzhnij.aspx]Sweet Land [/url]
[url=http://ivoroling.nl/members/abdulvahidgli.aspx]Dead Set [/url]
[url=http://nsigcommunity.com/members/ahdjacjuk10.aspx]Fear X [/url]
[url=http://nsigcommunity.com/members/ahdjacjuk10.aspx]Jeff Dunham: Arguing with Myself [/url]
[url=http://forum.fscp.org/members/abdulvahabsko.aspx]RoboCop [/url]
[url=http://www.netknowledgenow.com/members/stefanefremenk.aspx]Fair Game [/url]
[url=http://freewebhostingtipsonline.com/members/nasihzhemchuzhnij.aspx]Redbelt [/url]
[url=http://blogs.mynd.ath.cx/members/kornejvernachev.aspx]Officer and a Gentleman, An [/url]
[url=http://ucnow.ru/members/patrikijamvros.aspx]Caleb's Door [/url]
[url=http://tamerfarag.com/members/nuzarprohorenk.aspx]All the King's Men [/url]

Anonymous said...

[color=red]The Most Affordable XRUMER/BACKLINK SERVICE Online!
The EFFORTLESS and POWERFUL WAY TO BUILD MASSIVE # OF BACKLINKS
[color=black]
200,000 BLASTS of your URLs+ Anchor Tex, message, pictures (can be spinned) etc
$10 USD (shared with other clients like a carpool), or
$25/200k for exclusive!(you control EVERYTHING)
$50 Exclusive @ 500,000 blasts.
(Complete reports will be given to clients)

[IMG]http://img697.imageshack.us/img697/1540/arrowdownh.gif[/IMG]
For orders, questions or concerns? Email: [u]formless.void47 at gmail.com [/u]
Note:
1. For STRICT Whitehat sites, it is advised to create buffers to pass on linkjuice. i.e. social bookmarks, cloaked pages etc.
You can blast the site directly, but it entails risk.
Using buffers are 100% safe, speaking from experience.
2. Xrumer is a very technical tool. Just describe to me what sorts of effects you want and well make it happen!
If you want to buy Xrumer?
>>>>> http://cloakedlink.com/chzgykebsd <<<<<<

[color=black]
-------
CLIENT 2 SAMPLE SPACE FILLED WITH URLs,Pics and Keywords
seo seminars denver seo methodology black hat seo software charlotte seo Buy Xrumer cuoc thi seo Xrumer 5 Crack net seo with xrumer seo edinburgh seo services manchester portland seo seo design solutions seo reseller india ny seo company seo services nyc seo new zealand boston seo seo company dubai seo images seo bournemouth seo tools seo san francisco seo elite serial Buy Pr8 Links seo competition seo fees seo freeware seo consulting firm buy buy seo software seo agency sydney seo freelancer india effective seo buy link tramadol local seo services mastercard buy seo articles seo firm uk seo quote submission software seo somerset seo pros utah seo company seo chandigarh seo rochester ny seo articles india seo pack seo company pune florida seo

-----
CLIENT 3 SAMPLE SPACE
[url=http://provenheightincrease.co.cc/ebook/shampoo-to-make-hair-grow-faster]shampoo to make hair grow faster[/url] http://provenheightincrease.co.cc/ebook/shampoo-to-make-hair-grow-faster

[url=http://herpescures.co.cc/drugs/Gental-Herpes-Pictures-Cures-For-Herpes-Transmission-Of-Genital-Herpes.html]gental herpes pictures cures for herpes transmission of genital herpes[/url]

http://www.ripoffreport.com/con-artists/global-life-enhancem/global-life-enhancements-h-h-b3e8j.htm

[url=http://buyplasmahdtvrev.easyjournal.com/entry.aspx?eid=4357456]PanasonicVIERAX1SeriesTC-L32X132-Inch720pLCDHDTV[/url]


-----
CLIENT 4 SAMPLE SPACE
[url=http://provenheightincrease.co.cc/ebook/how-to-make-yourself-taller-naturally]how to make yourself taller naturally[/url] http://provenheightincrease.co.cc/ebook/how-to-make-yourself-taller-naturally

[url=http://growyourdick.co.cc/penile/foods-to-increase-penis-size]foods to increase penis size[/url] http://growyourdick.co.cc/penile/foods-to-increase-penis-size

http://weedvaporizer-volcanovaporizer.info/hookah/v.php?v=small&ambient=false

http://buycheapplasmatv.info/cgi-bin/index.pl?=philips-plasma-tv [url=http://buycheapplasmatv.info/cgi-bin/index.pl?=philips-plasma-tv]philips plasma tv[/url]

[url=http://teethwhiteningstripsreviews.info/xr/nevada-teeth-whitening]testimonials Akron list price teeth whitening veneers teeth whitenibg teeth whitening phoenix best teeth whiteners tooth whitening reviews tooth whitenimg tooth whitening belfast[/url]

-----
CLIENT 5 SAMPLE SPACE
[url=http://cheapxrumerservice.co.cc]Cheap Xrumer Service[/url]
[url=http://cheapxrumerservice.co.cc]Cheapest Xrumer Service[/url]
[url=http://cheapxrumerservice.co.cc]Best Xrumer Service[/url]
--------
https://buypleodinosaur1.wiki.zoho.com/Pleo-A-Ugobe-Life-Form-Pleo-Auction-Pleo-Best-Pleo-Dinosaur-A-Ugobe-Life-Form-Pleo-Dinosaur-Price-.html?a=1##Pleo A Ugobe Life Form Pleo Auction Pleo Best Pleo Dinosaur A Ugobe Life Form Pleo Dinosaur Price

http://cheaphdtvplasma.co.cc/television/plasma-disc-decompression [url=http://cheaphdtvplasma.co.cc/television/plasma-disc-decompression]plasma disc decompression[/url]

Anonymous said...

buy xanax bars online no prescription xanax long term side effects - xanax withdrawal symptoms in newborns

Anonymous said...

dating ideas in mansfield texas http://loveepicentre.com/taketour.php prehistoric indian artifacts dating

Anonymous said...

[url=http://loveepicentre.com/success_stories.php][img]http://loveepicentre.com/uploades/photos/7.jpg[/img][/url]
thick girls dating [url=http://loveepicentre.com/testimonials.php]plenty off fish dating site[/url] oyester dating
sex dating in highwood illinois [url=http://loveepicentre.com/taketour.php]christian dating service west virginia[/url] women in iowa dating
free on line dating mingle [url=http://loveepicentre.com/]women 55-60 dating[/url] white guy and black girl dating

Anonymous said...

louie vito hightower dating http://loveepicentre.com/articles.php native american dating pacific northwest coast

Anonymous said...

offline dating software http://loveepicentre.com/articles.php online dating site credit card free

Anonymous said...

caine mutiny herman wouk ebook http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/Coaching-for-Emotional-Intelligence-The-Secret-to-Developing-the-Star-Potential-in-Your-Employees/p210021/ theological reflection ministry ebook [url=http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/fr/Results-Rule-Build-a-Culture-That-Blows-the-Competition-Away/p218706/]sony ebook macintosh[/url] ncch ebook

Anonymous said...

free valentines day recipe ebook http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/fr/Learn-AppleScript-The-Comprehensive-Guide-to-Scripting-and-Automation-on-Mac-OS-X/p197048/ ebook reader refurbished [url=http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/Rav-Michael-Laitman/m104900/]joes law ebook[/url] johnson county library ebook

Anonymous said...

kandle ebook light http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/Hotel-Restaurant-Management-Career-Starter/p224340/ ebook computer maintenance best practices [url=http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/fr/Clark-Aldrich/m21616/]horse handicapping ebook[/url] phules company ebook

Anonymous said...

m m romance ebook http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/Isabelle-Moulinier/m53130/ pragmatic programmer ebook [url=http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/es/DESIGNING-MAN-1451/p227964/]vba tutorial ebook[/url] ebook feehan

Anonymous said...

ebook snapshots from the wedding http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/es/International-Encyclopedia-of-Social-and-Behavioral-Sciences/p201549/ pratchett ebook [url=http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/fr/Systems-Analysis-and-Design/c2450/?page=3]ebook for web developing for dummies[/url] free structural analysis ebook

Anonymous said...

flight without formulae free doenload ebook http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/Combating-Piracy/p110415/ amazon ebook nook compatible [url=http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/fr/Motivation/c2119/?page=4]online free ebook homeopathic medicines[/url] hamlet free ebook catala

Anonymous said...

ebook websites http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/fr/Make-Your-Workplace-Great-The-7-Keys-to-an-Emotionally-Intelligent-Organization/p226795/ sony touchscreen ebook reader instrucions [url=http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/it/Microsoft/c1263/?page=42]eyeon fusion ebook pdf[/url] ejaculation trainer torrent ebook download

Anonymous said...

embedded system by rajkamal free ebook http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/de/PMP-Exam-Prep/p149394/ the last question asimov ebook ebook zane grey inexpensive ebook reader

Anonymous said...

ebook street corner society http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/it/Why-Men-Do-not-Listen-and-Women-Can-not-Read-Maps/p137565/ frontier women ebook [url=http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/The-New-Boss-How-to-Survive-the-First-100-Days/p157259/]free ebook download for ipod[/url] ebook torrent eat this not that

Anonymous said...

free video and ebook http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/Jack-Kerouac/m55725/ free ebook cancer's natural enemy free home health care aide ebook ebook sony software

Anonymous said...

ebook new releases ebook new releases http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/es/J-H-Davenport/m54050/ puppet ebook [url=http://audiobookscollection.co.uk/fr/PDF-Hacks-100-Industrial-strength-Tips-and-Tools/p106729/]john morrison sports betting ebook download[/url] ebook laskar pelangi

Anonymous said...

melody beattie ebook http://audiobooksplanet.co.uk/Digital-Music/c1154/ free adwords ebook [url=http://audiobooksplanet.co.uk/Rebecca-S-New/m105303/]ebook pictures for profit[/url] ebook technology stanford

Anonymous said...

free ebook downloads mac http://audiobooksplanet.co.uk/fr/authors/?letter=Rp ebook without remorse chatham artillery bbq ebook torrent illustrated ebook

Anonymous said...

free stock trading techniques ebook http://audiobooksplanet.co.uk/The-Forbidden-Tower/p28631/ free html ebook for beginners [url=http://audiobooksplanet.co.uk/Michsl-S-Bols/m89174/]ebook reader cut and paste[/url] dante's inferno ebook

Anonymous said...

garmin unlock maps software http://buyoem.co.uk/product-36244/Avid-Sibelius-7-0-x64 setup software ms mn-100 router [url=http://buyoem.co.uk/product-33279/Red-Giant-Psunami-1-3-for-Adobe-After-Effects]symetric virus software[/url] win zip software
[url=http://buyoem.co.uk/de/category-100-108/Office-Tools]Office Tools - Software Store[/url] acb10us software
[url=http://buyoem.co.uk/it/information-8/Refund-Policy][img]http://buyoem.co.uk/image/8.gif[/img][/url]

Anonymous said...

wireless netzero software http://buyoemsoftware.co.uk/product-35924/Foryoursoft-Messenger-Detect-3-8 patent pending mobile software [url=http://buyoemsoftware.co.uk/es/product-10452/Microsoft-Office-Enterprise-2007]blogging server software for windows[/url] merchant services software
[url=http://buyoemsoftware.co.uk/category-200-203/Graphics-and-Publishing?page=3]Graphics & Publishing - Download OEM, Software Sale, OEM Software[/url] accounting system software architecture doent
[url=http://buyoemsoftware.co.uk/fr/product-31615/GrandReporter-1-2-MAC][img]http://buyoem.co.uk/image/7.gif[/img][/url]

Anonymous said...

mcafee anti-virus software http://buysoftwareonline.co.uk/de/category-100-113/Musik-Software?page=5 access software downloads [url=http://buysoftwareonline.co.uk/it/product-24984/Adobe-Lightroom-2-Mac]best website download software[/url] zen touch software
[url=http://buysoftwareonline.co.uk/category-100-112/Multimedia-and-Entertainment]Multimedia & Entertainment - Software Store[/url] workforce planning software
[url=http://buysoftwareonline.co.uk/product-36507/Creative-Dimension-3DSOM-3-1][img]http://buyoem.co.uk/image/3.gif[/img][/url]

Anonymous said...

[url=http://redbrickstore.co.uk/products/exelon.htm][img]http://onlinemedistore.com/3.jpg[/img][/url]
jefferson county academy of pharmacy http://redbrickstore.co.uk/products/celexa.htm delmars exam review series pharmacy technician [url=http://redbrickstore.co.uk/products/methotrexate.htm]cialis and online pharmacy[/url]
robbins pharmacy http://redbrickstore.co.uk/products/nexium.htm cvs pharmacy chandler az [url=http://redbrickstore.co.uk/products/alavert.htm]alavert[/url]
w scott taylor pharmacy hours of operation http://redbrickstore.co.uk/products/zelnorm.htm dicks pharmacy centerville utah [url=http://redbrickstore.co.uk/categories/pain-relief.htm]pharmacy and stomach ache and drugs[/url]
pharmacy hgh prices http://redbrickstore.co.uk/products/viagra-soft-flavoured.htm allegra pharmacy [url=http://redbrickstore.co.uk/products/allopurinol.htm]allopurinol[/url]

Anonymous said...

The next is the unedited and sign of the zodiac casino border advantages of all games uncommitted on the gaming securities industry. The design on the Greenwich peninsula in my kinship with the one-armed Brigand. In his written Response, Pacheco named quintuplet casino and gave their like NOC he accepted where the Focusing needed to set out. Not exclusively do you use the Zune software package to sync your music and videos, but you'll be able to to its public lavatory and the fact that no move was required to toy. They mightiness be a web Maven Bobby Flay and is a duplicate of his Noted restaurant in New York by the like call. http://www.casinosonline2.es/ List of United States On-line Casino games - Other/specialty Games There can be deprecatingly -- as the 'one-sixth Borough' of New York, and with almost 8,000 commuters qualification the 75-minute check ride between the... In the mathematics of probability, wandering Casino odds are Outlined as the probability that is the equivalent of 750$. The bonuses at Slots if that's exit to alteration.

Anonymous said...

[url=http://englandpharmacy.co.uk/products/evecare.htm][img]http://onlinemedistore.com/2.jpg[/img][/url]
valeo pharmacy http://englandpharmacy.co.uk/categories/erection-packs.htm malaysia education postgraduate pharmacy [url=http://englandpharmacy.co.uk/products/rogaine-5-.htm]pharmacy heinsberg geilenkirchen[/url]
asean scholarships singapore pharmacy http://englandpharmacy.co.uk/products/endep.htm failed pharmacy school can i reapply [url=http://englandpharmacy.co.uk/products/flagyl-er.htm]flagyl er[/url]
prozac pharmacy online http://englandpharmacy.co.uk/products/differin.htm illinois pharmacy license renewal forms [url=http://englandpharmacy.co.uk/products/accupril.htm]how to check on an online pharmacy[/url]
valeant pharmacy http://englandpharmacy.co.uk/categories/antiviral.htm direct pharmacy rx [url=http://englandpharmacy.co.uk/products/clomid.htm]clomid[/url]

Unknown said...
This comment has been removed by the author.
Unknown said...
This comment has been removed by the author.
Unknown said...
This comment has been removed by the author.
Unknown said...
This comment has been removed by the author.